History of Jute Industries

Chapter 1: Introduction 1. Introduction Jute is a natural fiber with golden and silky shine and is known well as The Golden Fiber. It is the cheapest vegetable fiber procured from the skin of the plant's stem. Jute is the second most important vegetable fiber after cotton, in terms of usage, global consumption, production, and availability. It has high tensile strength, low extensibility, and ensures better breath ability of fabrics. Jute fiber is 100% bio-degradable and recyclable and thus environmentally friendly.It is one of the most versatile natural fibers that have been used in raw materials for packaging, textiles, non-textile, construction, and agricultural sectors. It helps to make best quality industrial yarn, fabric, net, and sacks. Jute, the golden fiber, is the raw material for one of  Bangladesh’s oldest industries. The first jute mill started production in Bengal in 1856. After more than 150 years; the jute industry is now challenged by competition from altern ative materials, by the recession in the international markets and by low awareness among consumers of the versatile, eco-friendly nature of jute fabric itself.Yet this industry still provides a livelihood to more than 250,000 mill workers and more than 4 million farmers’ families. It is a golden bond with the Earth; its use is a statement about ecological awareness as it is a fully bio-degradable and eco-friendly fiber. It comes from the earth, it helps the earth and once its life is done it merges back into the earth. Advantages of jute include good insulating and antistatic properties, as well as having low thermal conductivity and moderate moisture regain.It includes acoustic insulating properties and manufacture with no skin irritations. Jute has the ability to be blended with other fibers, both synthetic and natural, and accepts cellulosic dye classes such as natural, basic, vat, sulfur, reactive, and pigment dyes. While jute is being replaced by relatively cheap synthe tic materials in many uses, but  jute’s biodegradable nature is suitable for the storage of food materials, where synthetics would be unsuitable. 1. Report Background One of the unavoidable aspects of modern business studies is exposure to the practical experiences.As a part of the BBA program requirement, I was assigned by my honorable course instructor Prof. Dr. Nargis Akhter to prepare a Project Work on â€Å"The History of Jute Industries† to fulfill the requirement of 3 credit course, Course Code: BUS 498. It endowed me with the opportunities to experience the real life exposure to the Jute sectors of Bangladesh. 2. Methodology In order to prepare the project report I use both secondary and primary data. For primary data I talked to some employees of BJMC and BJMA over phone and face to face.I also crosschecked the information found over the internet by some people. For secondary data, I used the vast knowledge of internet, the websites of different research org anizations, different news websites and different article found in the internet. 3. Scope & Limitations For this report, I used graphs, chart, tables etc to show necessary information. Firstly, the history of jute industry in the Indian subcontinent has been described elaborately. The history is divided into four parts such as, Ancient Period, Pre-colonial period, post colonial period, after nationalization.The production, sales, contribution of jute industries in Bangladeshi economy, present condition, labor unrest, industrial relations situations etc. are discussed afterwards. Finally I have sum up by some recommendations and showing my findings and analysis. Chapter 2: Literature Review 2. Literature Review The paper titled â€Å"Jute Manufacturing Sector of Bangladesh; Challenges, Opportunities and Policy Options†, written by Khondokar Golam Moazzem, MD. Tariqur Rahman, Abdus Sobhan, is all about production and sales of jute mills, prospects of jute mills features and cha llenges faced by the jute mills of Bangladesh [1].News published in ‘Financial Express† is about the demand fulfilled by the jute industries, the ill management of jute industries and the present management situation of jute industries in Bangladesh [2]. An article published in Business Standard in 31 December 2009 written by the staff reporter Bhubaneswar which says that Jute industries of India seeks ban on imports of Bangladeshi jute goods for positive success of their own jute goods[3]. The article says the news about 48 hour strike held in state owned jute mills.The workers called the strike along with the trade union members for their right of increased wages and other arrears [4]. Information from the website gives a thorough idea about the earlier history of jute industries in Bangladesh [5]. The website provides jute related news about Bangladeshi jute industries. It consists of the news of 2009, 2010, 2011 and 2012[6]. On 18 March 2012, workers threaten to go o n strike, a report by Arafat Ara published in Financial express [7]. Government targets to double the production within 2011-12[8].While writing on â€Å"history of jute industries† some authentic information were found in the cited website [9]. Some valuable information about the history of jute industries in the Indian subcontinent were found in the website of ‘jute industries’ [10]. †Jute Dilemma† an article by Khalid Rab published in 20th Anniversary supplement of The Daily Star newspaper on March24, 2011 Thursday that talked about the dissatisfactory performance of the jute sector [11]. Chapter 3: Findings 3. 0. History of Jute Industries 3. 1. Jute in Ancient Time (Pre-Colonial Period)Jute has been used since ancient times in Africa and Asia to provide cordage and weaving fiber from the stem and food from the leaves. In several historical documents ( Ain-e-Akbari by Abul Fazal in 1590) during the era of the great Mughal Emperor Akbar   (1542 à ¢â‚¬â€œ1605) states that the poor villagers of India used to wear clothes made of jute. Simple handlooms and hand spinning wheels were used by the weavers, who used to spin cotton yarns as well. History also states that Indians, especially Bengalis, used ropes and twines made of white jute from ancient times for household and other uses.Chinese papermakers from very ancient times had selected almost all the kinds of plants as hemp, silk, jute, cotton etc. for  papermaking. Qiu Shiyu, researcher of the Harbin Academy of  Sciences and expert of Jin history, concluded that Jews used to take part in the work of designing â€Å"jiaozi,†Ã‚  made of coarse jute paper. A small, piece of jute paper with Chinese characters written on it has been discovered in Dunhuang in Gansu Province, in northwest China. It is believed it was produced during the Western Han Dynasty (206 BC–220 AD). 3. 2. Colonial PeriodThe British East India Company was the British Empire Authority delegat ed in India from the 17th century to the middle of 20th century. The company was the first Jute trader. The company traded mainly in raw jute during the 19th century. During the start of the 20th century, the company started trading raw jute with Dundee’s Jute Industry. This company had monopolistic access to this trade during that time. In 1793, the East India Company exported the first  consignment of jute. This first shipment, 100 tons, was followed by additional  shipments at irregular intervals.Eventually, a consignment found its way to  Dundee, Scotland where the flax spinners were anxious to learn whether jute  could be processed mechanically. During the same period, the Scotlanders were experimenting on whether jute fiber can be mechanically processed. 1830 is the year when the flax machines were used by Dundee spinners for spinning jute yarns. Since Dundee mill was the only supplier of jute, the use of flax machine ultimately led to increase in production and export of jute products in entire continent. Margaret Donnelly I was a jute mill landowner in Dundee in the 1800s.She set up the first jute mills in India. The Entrepreneurs of the Dundee Jute Industry in Scotland were called The Jute Barons. Starting in the 1830's,  the Dundee  spinners learned how to spin jute yarn by modifying their power-driven flax  machinery. The rise of the jute industry in Dundee saw a corresponding increase in the  production and export of raw jute from the Indian sub-continent which was  the sole supplier of this primary commodity. The major jute growing areas were mainly in Bengal at the Kolkata side. Calcutta (now Kolkata) had the  raw material close by as the jute growing areas were mainly in Bengal.There  was an abundant supply of labor, ample coal for power, and the city was ideally  situated for shipping to world markets. The first jute mill was established at  Rishra, on the River Hooghly near Calcutta in 1855 when Mr. George Aucl and  brought jute spinning machinery from Dundee. Four years later, the first power  driven weaving factory was set up. Although Bengal, particularly Eastern Bengal, was the main producer of quality raw jute, the first jute mill was established at Risraw near calcutta on the bank of the hughli only in 1855, after 20 years of mechanical spinning of jute in Dundee.The delay was due to the non-availability of technical hands and power to drive machines. In 1854, coal mines were opened at Raniganj. Attracted by the easy availability of power, George Aucland, an Englishman established the first jute mill. But he could not make reasonable profits and left the business. In 1859, the Bornee Company founded the second mill with spinning and weaving facilities. Unlike the Aucland mill, it started prospering after its establishment. Figure 1 Dundee Jute Mill in Scotland. The Entrepreneurs of the DundeeJute Industry in Scotland were called The Jute Barons. Figure 2 Dundee Jute Mill in Scotl and. In 1833, Jute fibre was spun mechanically in Dundee, Scotland. Within five years it doubled its plant size. By 1866, three new mills were established. Between 1868 and 1873, these mills made large profits. Five new companies started in 1874 and eight more in 1875. Thus Bengal experienced a real boom in jute industry towards the end of the nineteenth century. With the establishment of jute mills, Bengal became a major exporter of sacking bags.Calcutta appeared to be a strong competitor of Dundee and successfully penetrated into Dundee's hessian market in many parts of the world, including America, primarily because Calcutta had the cost advantage in producing jute goods. Secondly, it was situated in close proximity to the jute growing districts of Eastern Bengal and Assam. Thirdly, it had cheap labour. Fourthly, the mills ran for 15 to 16 hours, and sometimes even for 22 hours daily. This led to a clear advantage of Calcutta manufacturers in monetary terms. Moreover, they could offer a finer quality of jute.In sixty years between 1880 and 1940, the number of mills increased by 5 times, that of looms by about 14 times, of spindles by 19 times, and of persons employed by 11 times. The growth of the industry was significant during the 20 years between 1900 and 1920. During the Great Depression of 1929-33, the jute industry was severely hit since the demand for jute goods declined drastically throughout the world. In the following three decades, the jute industry in India enjoyed even more  remarkable expansion, rising to commanding leadership by 1939 with a total of  68,377 looms, concentrated mainly on the River Hooghly near Calcutta.These  mills alone have proved able to supply the world demand. Several historical events were responsible for the growth of the jute industry. In 1838, the Dutch government specified bags made of jute instead of flax for carrying coffee from the East Indies. At that time flax was imported from Russia. But the Crimean War of 1854-56 led to the stoppage of supply of flax from Russia and forced Dundee, the famous jute manufacturing centre of UK, to look for substitutes.In Dundee the flax mills were converted into jute mills. The American Civil War (1861-65), on the other hand, gave further impetus to the jute trade, as supplies of American cotton were much restricted. Since then, the industry did not return to flax or cotton again. The main reason for this permanent shift had been its comparative cost advantage. The jute industry grew rapidly and jute mills were established in many countries, including USA, Germany, France, Belgium, Austria, Italy, Holland, Spain, Russia, Brazil and Bengal.This led to a rapid increase in the demand for jute. The Bengali peasants responded quickly to][ meet the world demand by increasing the area under jute cultivation. The outbreak of the First World War led to a rapid increase in the demand for raw jute, since it was used to manufacture sandbags to protect soldiers in trenches and to produce gunny bags for carrying food grain for the army. Inevitably, the price of jute also rose sharply. Table 1 Growth of jute industry in Bengal, 1879-1939 Year |Mills |Looms |Spindles |Employment | |1879-80 |22 |5,000 |71,000 |27,000 | |1900-01 |36 |16,100 |331,400 |114,800 | |1920-21 |77 |41,600 |869,900 |288,400 | |1938-39 |110 |69,000 |13,70,000 |299,000 |Before it was put to industrial use, jute was used mostly for domestic purposes. With the conversion of the Dundee flax mills into jute processing mills, the demand for jute increased manifold in the world. Bengali peasants were highly experienced in jute cultivation and could respond quickly to meeting this increased demand. In 1872, when industrial use of jute had begun, it was mainly grown in the districts of pabna, bogra, darjeeling, dinajpur, rangpur and Hughli (West Bengal). The ratio of land under jute cultivation to total cropped land in these districts in 1872 was 14%, 11%, 9%, 7%, 6% and 5% respect ively.Subsequently, jute cultivation spread to other districts. In 1914, leading districts in terms of the above ratio were Rangpur (28%,) Bogra (25%), Tippera (comilla, 24%), Pabna (21%), Dhaka (18%), Faridpur (16%), Hughli (West Bengal, 13%), Rajshahi (11%), Jessore (10%), Nadia (10%), and Dinajpur (7%). After the end of the First World War in 1918, the world demand for raw jute decreased. This had a negative impact on the area under jute cultivation. The situation worsened for jute cultivation during the Great Depression of 1929-33. The prices sank so low that jute growing became unprofitable.As a result, peasants greatly reduced their area under jute cultivation. By 1939, economic recovery took place. The breaking out of the Second World War caused an increase in the demand for jute and between 1939 and 1945; peasants put more areas under jute cultivation. The earliest goods woven of jute in Dundee were coarse bagging  materials. With  longer experience, however, finer fabri cs called burlap, or hessian as it is  known in India, were produced. This superior cloth met a ready sale and,  eventually, the Indian Jute Mills began to turn out these fabrics.The natural advantage these mills enjoyed soon gave Calcutta world leadership in   burlap and bagging materials and the mills in Dundee and other countries turned  to specialties, a great variety of which were developed. 3. 3. Post-Colonial Period After the fall of British Empire in India during 1947, it was found that all jute mills of the region fell in West Bengal, which became a part of India and all major jute growing districts became part of East Bengal, a province of Pakistan. Because it had no jute mills, East Bengal faced problems in marketing of raw jute.The problem was, however, quickly overcome by establishing jute mills in East Bengal. During that time, most of the Jute  Barons started to evacuate India, leaving behind the industrial setup of the Jute Industry. Most of the jute mills in India were taken over by the Marwaris businessmen. In East Pakistan after partition in 1947 lacked a Jute Industry but  had the finest jute fiber stock. As the tension started to rise between Pakistan and India, the Pakistani felt the need to setup their own Jute Industry.Several groups of Pakistani families (mainly from West Pakistan) came into the jute business by setting up several jute mills in  Narayanganj of then East Pakistan, the most significant ones are: Bawanis, Adamjees,  Ispahanis and Dauds. 3. 4. After Nationalization After the liberation of Bangladesh from Pakistan in 1971,  most of the Pakistani owned Jute Mills were taken over by the government of Bangladesh. Pakistani mill owners (about 68% of the total loom strength) left the country, leaving the industry in disarray. Abandoned jute mills were subject to heavy looting.The new government of Bangladesh had to take up the responsibility of rebuilding the industry. By a nationalization order, about 85% of i ndustries, including all jute mills, were nationalized. Later, to control these Jute mils in Bangladesh, the government built up Bangladesh Jute Mills Corporation (BJMC). Bangladesh Jute Mills Corporation (BJMC) was formed to manage and look after all the 73 jute mills having 23,836 looms at that time. At one stage the number of jute mills under the jurisdiction of BJMC went up to 78. BJMC had to resurrect the industry from a ruined position.Immediately after liberation, it became very difficult to solve problem of financial hardship of the jute industry because financial institutions were not working well. Frequent power failures and power stoppages also compelled the industry to suffer heavy losses in terms of production and foreign exchange earnings. In addition to these problems, the short supply of spares, labor unrest, wastage in production etc. also shook the industry severely. For jute industry of Bangladesh, the first two years after liberation was the period of reorganizat ion.The government offered cash subsidy to the industry, which amounted to Tk 200 million annually. The annual cash subsidy was reduced to 100 million since 1976-77. Thanks to this policy and periodic devaluation of currency, Bangladesh could retain its position of a prime exporter of jute goods in the dollar areas of export. The industry earned profit in 1979-80, when the subsidy was withdrawn. By December 1979, BJMC had 77 jute mills, two carpet backing mills, and two spare parts producing units. In 1980, six twine mills were disinvested to the private sector.In June 1981, BJMC had 74 mills under its administration. These mills had about 165,000 workers and 27,000 managerial and office staff. 3. 5. Denationalization Denationalization of jute mills started in July 1982. The government ordered BJMC to complete the process by 16 December 1982, but only 10 mills could be handed over to Bangladeshi owners by that time. The valuation process and settlement of other organizational matte rs relating to handing over of the mills took a long time.Among the jute mills owned by BJMC, 46 had satisfactory financial performance in 1982-83, when their profit before contribution to national exchequer was about Tk 240 million. The same mills incurred total losses of about Tk 430 million in the previous year. Jute mills incurred losses regularly over years and external donor agencies pressed hard for denationalization. More and more mills were put into the denationalization list. In 1999, BJMC had 33 mills. The World Bank continued to work closely with the government to restructure the jute sector, especially through denationalization, merger, dissolution, closure and setting up of new units.By 1998, BJMC had an accumulated loss of more than Tk 28 billion and a debt of more than Tk 11 billion. Losses incurred by BJMC in 1997-98 were Tk 2. 38 billion. Major features of the BJMC mills in that year were: total production capacity – 451,707 tons; looms in operation – 12,350; loom hours – 59. 3 million; production per loom hour – 5. 33 kg; baled production – 312,000 tons; consumption of raw jute – 319,306 tons; local sales – 29,000 tons; export 256,000 tons; value of total sales (including export bonus) – Tk 8. billion; production cost per ton – Tk 30,349; wages paid to workers – Tk 3. 89 billion; and salary paid to employees and executives – Tk 881 million. 3. 6. Performance of private sector The performance of the private sector jute industry is also not encouraging. privatization itself has been a very problematic and slow process. Resistance from workers/employees of the mills and lengthy formalities forced the process to be slow. In 1998, out of forty jute mills in the private sector, three were closed and two laid off. The private sector jute mills run on a very low profile.Up to December 1999, the private sector jute mills have accumulated losses of more than Tk 12 billion. Th e jute spinning mills in Bangladesh export nearly 100% of their production. In 1998, there were 41 spinning mills, which had an annual production capacity of about 195,000 tons. Products of these mills are yarn and twine, which are used the world over, for carpet weaving, wall covering, jute webbing, fabrics for shopping bags, caps, handicrafts, canvas, decorative fabrics, laminated cloth, and safety fuse for explosives.These mills employ about 25,000 people and the employers have their own trade body named Bangladesh Jute Spinners Association. 3. 7. An overall trend of production and sales 3. 7. 1. Trend of production Production trend of the jute manufacturing sector can be broadly categorized into four periods: first phase (1950-1970); second phase (1972-1981); third phase (1982-1990); and fourth phase (1991-onward) (Figure 1). During these four phases, jute manufacturing sector had experienced various changes in policies, and also in the pattern of utilization of jute and jute go ods.In the pre independence period, jute mills were owned by a small number of private entrepreneurs. During this phase, average hessian production was 155,586 metric ton (MT) per year, of which 87 per cent was exported; the comparable figures for sacking were 267,614 MT and 78 per cent respectively. Production reached its peak in 1969, with an output of 5. 74 lakh MT. Due to political instability and damages caused during the year of Liberation in 1971, operations of jute mills were interrupted. Consequently, production declined in 1971 and 1972. Thereafter, production started to increase.In the second phase (1972-1981), government decided to nationalize the jute manufacturing sector, and took control of all the private sector jute mills. During the 1970s, average level of production of hessian was about 165,000 MT, of which 94 percent was exported, while comparable figures for sacking were 225,460 MT and 86 percent respectively. Growth in the production of jute goods between 1960 and 1980 can be attributed to the growth in production of hessian, sacking and carpet backing cloth (CBC) products. Figure 3 Production of different kinds of jute goods, 1960-2006 (Source: BJMC, BJMA and BJSA)Table 2 Periodic trend of jute goods production |Period |Hessian |Sacking |CBC |Yarn/Twine | |Up to 1970 |155,586 |267,614 |23,929 |0 | | |(86. 9) |(78. 2) |(96. 7) |(0. 0) | |1972-80 |165,033 |225,458 |63,578 |1,953 | | |(93. ) |(86. 3) |(95. 5) |(73. 3) | |1981-91 |219,048 |270,556 |80,415 |61,090 | | |(94. 8) |(83. 7) |(97. 0) |(69. 1) | |1992-05 |87,968 |96,839 |39,777 |163,830 | | |(99. 5) |(71. 7) |(89. 7) |(90. ) | Production of yarn/twine accounted for a small share of total production during the 1970s. During the 1980s (third phase), the then government decided to denationalize a number of jute mills in line with the initiative of economic liberalization. A mixed trend is observed in the production of jute goods during this phase, which reached its peak in 1990 with a production of 5. 96 lakh MT. Production of yarn gradually increased in the 1980s. Most importantly, production of hessian and sacking- two major traditional products gradually declined, especially since the late 1980s. Production of CBC declined as well.In the fourth phase (1990-onward), following the suggestions of the World Bank, government started to denationalize a number of other public sector jute mills which resulted in the shutdown of many jute mills as well. However, production of jute goods has not picked up even after adoption of various policy measures. Indeed, production of traditional products such as hessian, sacking and CBC has continued to decline with the exception of growth in the production of yarn and twine. Yarn/twine now accounts for the major portion of jute goods and over time, its production has also been on a steady rise.During 2006, Bangladesh’s share in the global production of jute goods was approximately 18 per cent. 3. 7. 2. Trend of Sales Both public and private sector jute mills sell their products in either the domestic market or the international market. Although overseas export comprised major share of Bangladesh’s jute goods production, domestic sale has been posting a rise, which now accounts for 38 per cent of the total production. Bangladesh is the leading exporter of jute goods in the world and her share in the global market is gradually increasing- which accounted for 60 percent of the global exports in 2006.If export of raw jute is taken into account, total export would reach more than 75 per cent. According to Bangladesh Jute Association (BJA), Bangladesh exports about 25 lakh bales of jute goods which accounted for about 56 per cent of the total raw jute grown in the country. It is worth noting here that Bangladesh and India currently meet more than 90 per cent of the global export demand for jute and jute goods; to compare, this share was 79 per cent in 1970. [pic] Figure 4 Sales in Domestic and Inte rnational market (%) 3. 8. Contribution in Economy The contribution of jute sector to economy of Bangladesh is enormous.Bangladesh holds the 2nd position as a Jute producer in the world with the average production of Jute 1. 08 m ton/Year. More than 85% of world production of Jute is cultivated in the Ganges Delta & having the major portion of it; Bangladesh became the largest producer of Raw Jute or Jute Fiber in the world. For centuries, Bangladeshi Jute had and still has demand in the international market for higher quality fibers. This fact makes Bangladesh the major exporter (80% + market share) of Jute Fiber in the world; while India has nominal dominance over export of Raw Jute Fiber.Total average export earnings from jute and jute goods are US$ 611 million (60 lakh bales)/Year. Average export value of raw jute is US$ 140 million and the numbers of factories are 187. Earnings from jute and jute product exports hit the billion dollars mark for the first time in the country's h istory in 2010. Jute sector is contributing 4. 68 percent in export earning last fiscal year and two per cent increase during 2009-10. This sector has been generating employment to a large segment of total population of the country, directly and indirectly over the years. Bangladesh produces 5. -6. 0 million (55-60 lakh) bales of raw jute every year of which some 3. 2 million (32 lakh) bales are used in the existing 148 jute mills. The country exports 2. 4 million (24 lakh). The total demand for jute goods in the international market is 0. 75 million (7. 50 lakh) tons. Bangladesh exports 0. 46 million (4. 60 lakh) tons of jute goods while India enjoys a share of 0. 285 million (2. 85 lakh) tons in the international market. Dhaka controls 62 per cent share of the total jute goods market of the world and earn Taka 20. 125 billion (2012. 5 crore) by exporting jute goods.Bangladesh is the lone exporter of raw jute. In the year 2006, the country exported 2. 4 million (24 lakh) bales of r aw jute valued at Taka 9. 77 million (977 crore). In total Bangladesh fetched Taka 29. 395 billion (2939. 5 crore) by exporting raw jute and jute goods. There are 50 private jute spinning mills producing jute yarn/twine under Bangladesh Jute Spinners Association (BJSA). The mills under jute spinning sector produce 0. 29 million (2. 90 lakh) tons of jute yarn/twine and export 0. 261 million (2. 61 lakh) m. tons of quality yarn/twine consuming 1. 9 illion (19 lakh) bales of high quality raw jute and earn foreign exchange worth Taka 12 million (1200 crore) per annum. 3. 9. Present Situations It has been recognized that Jute and Allied fibers occupy a unique position as eco-friendly, bio degradable, renewable natural fiber. We should also understand that Jute sector of Bangladesh has made and continues to make significant contribution to the national economy. Apart from its versatile use from domestic area to industry, it protects environment from different ways. All the export earnings from the Jute Industry vis-a-vis Jute sector are net foreign currency earnings.Domestic value additions are exceptionally high. So, a viable Jute Industry would be an ideal type of activity for the economic development of the country. We should always consider that Jute Industry is indigenous one. Jute, of the best quality in the world, is available in Bangladesh. It is one of the few natural resources that the country has and it has provided Bangladesh with a comparative edge in the world trade in jute goods. But, over the past decade, the jute industry has suffered more downs than ups for no fault of its own.It has been allowed to suffer gradual decline mainly due to lack of appropriate policy actions. Jute industry in Bangladesh (erstwhile East Pakistan) was established as export oriented industry with the aim of rapid industrialization. It became the major source of foreign currency earnings. The industry was made viable and kept expanding with the Govt. financial assistance on export of jute goods through bonus voucher. After liberation of the country in 1971 and nationalization of the Industry in 1972, such financial assistance to Jute Industry was withdrawn and the Industry started incurring losses.On the other hand, the newly established BJMC had to concentrate mainly on rehabilitation of the war torn Jute Industry and expand the world export market share which was taken by the competitors during war of liberation. At the initial stage Bangladesh Jute Industry i. e. BJMC had to face serious problems to recover the lost market. By the untiring efforts to improve the management, production and export, the Industry i. e. BJMC started achieving positive results from 1973-74 with the production of 500 thousand tons and export of 445 thousand tons from 320 thousand tons and 225 thousand tons respectively of 1971-72.With help of pie chart the result can be shown in the following. [pic] Figure 5 Bangladesh Export in Major Products during 1972-73 In 1977-78 BJ MC could achieve an export of 531 thousand tons, mainly traditional products (hession, sacking & CBC) against the previous highest export of 506 thousand tons in 1969-70. In 1980-81 Jute Industry could achieve highest production of 590 thousand tons exceeding the production of 1969-70. In 1981-82, the Jute Industry again could break the export record of 1969-70, exporting around 537 thousand tons against production of 586 thousand tons.Large scale denationalization started in 1982-83. But, private sector jute mills could not perform the way it was expected for many reasons. As a result, performance of the overall Jute industry started deteriorating gradually from 570 thousand tons (production) and 514 thousand tons (export) in 1982-83 to 286 thousand tons (production) and 192 thousand tons (export) in 2003-04. It is seen in the figure below more clearly. [pic] Figure 6 Bangladesh Export in Major Products during 1993-94 During Eighties the new jute yarn/twine mills came into the pict ure and expanded gradually.It could increase export of yarn/twine from 28 thousand tons in 1983-84 to around 380 thousand tons in 2009-10. The gradual increase in the production and export of yarn/twine could help increase of overall export of Jute products to nearly 600 thousand tons with the share of only around 200 thousand tons of traditional products i. e. Hessian, sacking & CBC. It may be seen from the figures given below that production and export of BJMC and BJMA mills (mainly traditional products) recorded gradual decline over the years. Table 3 Productions and Export of BJMA and BJMC Mills Year |Production |Export | |1981-82 |587 thousand tons |537 thousand tons | |1991-92 |416 thousand tons |408 thousand tons | |2001-02 |321 thousand tons |257 thousand tons | |2009-10 |302 thousand tons |219thousand tons | Position in current financial year is also not encouraging in BJMC & BJMA mills as may be seen from the table (6months/ July-Dec'10) below. Table 4 Production and Expor t of BJMC & BJMA Mills during July-Dec’10 Types of Mills |Production |Export | |BJMC |78 thousand tons |56 thousand tons | |BJMA |60 thousand tons |37 thousand tons | |Total |138 thousand tons |93 thousand tons | However, the production and export of yarn/twine mills mainly under BJSA (Bangladesh Jute Spinners Association) recorded increase gradually from 50 thousand tons and 28 thousand tons in 1983-84 to 399 thousand tons and 380 thousand tons in 2009-10 respectively. It may be maintained during this financial year also on the basis of its production and export of 227 thousand tons and 193 thousand tons of July-Dec'10.Table given below on the comparative position in production of traditional products reveal that while Bangladesh jute industry is sinking, Indian jute industry is booming. Table 5 Comparative Position of Bangladesh & India in Production of Traditional Products |Years |Bangladesh |India | |1999-2000 |3. 10 lac tons |12. 45 lac tons | |2005-2006 |2. 43 lac tons |13. 42 lac tons | |2009-2010 |2. 54 lac tons |14. 50 lac tons |The present govt. has taken some positive steps to revitalize the Jute Industry, particularly BJMC mills. But, piece meal action will not serve the purpose because, production and export of traditional products, both in BJMC and BJMA (private) mills recorded gradual decline to a frustrating level over the years. A recently-created demand for jute sacks in Thailand has come as a boon for the jute industry in Bangladesh, raising hopes for a recovery in exports that fell 13 percent during July-February of the current fiscal year. Also, India has recently increased import of jute and jute goods after its currency started to gain against the US dollar.According to MD Shamsul Haque, director (marketing) of state-owned Bangladesh Jute Mills Corporation that has 21 jute mills running, â€Å"Exports of jute goods to our traditional middle-eastern and African markets have fallen amid political unrest in Libya, Syria, Iraq and o ther countries. But our exports increased in the last three months as we got some new markets, Thailand have emerged as a new market for our jute sacks along with Vietnam. † The market in Thailand has widened after the current Thai-government started buying a huge quantity of rice in jute sacks to fulfill its pledge of providing a guaranteed price to farmers. Bangladesh has received orders for supplying two crore (20 million) pieces of jute sacks from millers in Thailand. Thailand has opened up a new opportunity for Bangladesh. It has come as a blessing as Bangladesh’s stocks were piling up due to a fall in exports.Private jute mills will also be benefited due to the decision of Thailand, which is the largest exporter of rice and forecasts to produce 30 million tons of rice in 2011-12. Thailand needs three million pieces of bags a month to package rice which means around 36 million pieces of sacks will be required a year. According to Mahmudul Haque, managing director o f Janata Jute Mills Ltd, â€Å"Demand for jute sacks is high in Thailand. † He said, as his mill alone could not meet the orders, he tied up with two other mills. Janata ships 3. 2 lakh pieces of jute sacks a month to Thailand, he said. Exporters said the increased demand and higher prices of jute goods will allow them to narrow down the losses in export receipts in the first half of the year.But it may not be possible to offset the past fall and post a positive growth in exports by the end of the fiscal year on June 30, 2012. Export receipts from the jute industry- the second biggest export earner- fell 13. 66 percent to $615 million in the July-February period of the current fiscal year, from $712 million during the same period last year, according to Export Promotion Bureau. In the following figure, workers carry bundles of jute sacks at a factory in Bogra as, Thailand and Vietnam have emerged as new markets for jute sacks. [pic] Figure 6 Workers carry bundles of jute sack s at a factory in Bogra (source: STAR magazine, March 27, 2012).Total figures are not available readily, it reveals from some of the available figures that export of BJMC in the major importing regions e. g. Australia, America, Middle East, Europe, Africa recorded sharp decline in recent years mainly because of decline in production and absence of effective marketing efforts. Present situation of the industry calls for immediate measures/actions in the following areas: ? The new challenges and opportunities presented by the changing global environment of integration in the development of natural fibers; ? Modernize the jute industry to improve efficiency in production and processing to reduce cost and enhance product quality.With the rise of inescapable competition facing our jute sector, in the international field it should be our endeavor to facilitate upgrading the skills of the Workers, Supervisors and Managerial staff who are employed in the Jute Industry. ? Involve and ensure the active co-operation and partnership of Corporation, Financial Institutions, Energy supplying Agencies and Entrepreneurs in the fulfillment of these objectives. ? Power shortage should be reduced either by power supplying agencies or by setting up generators (gas or diesel) in such mills where it is required. ? The efforts need to be put with all earnestness to bring the efficiency level to at least 80%. ? So far management at the mill level is concerned; it should be linked to productivity and efficiency. Enable the jute industry to build world class state-of-the-art manufacturing capabilities in conformity with environmental standards, and for this purpose, to encourage Foreign Direct Investment as well as research and development in the sector. ? Aggressive marketing measures need to be undertaken internationally. Markets like Africa and Middle East should be given top priority to recover the lost market. 3. 10. Major drawbacks Major problems of the jute mills are as follows: †¢ Increase in the cost of production while the sales prices of jute goods remain at the same level or even decline; †¢ Accumulation of huge losses and consequently, of huge debts; †¢ Decline in exports of jute goods; †¢ Electricity failures; †¢ Excessive wastage; †¢ Labor unrest; Poor management that affects productivity and frequent changes in government policies; †¢ High cost of jute goods compared to synthetics led jute goods users to turn to synthetics. Concluding Remarks Before the independence, the country had six jute yarn mills. However, this sector had flourished during the '80s as the industry experienced a setback in the developed countries during the same period. The entrepreneurs of the country bought these second-hand jute mills machineries with a very low investment and started setting up these jute spinning mills. Two types of opinion exist in Bangladesh over the management of existing mills under BJMC. One group is in favor of pri vatization of the xisting state owned jute mills, where another group advocates reorganization/restructuring of BJMC mills. The mills under Bangladesh Jute Mills Corporation are exporting 0. 128 million (1. 28 lakh) m. tons of jute goods i. e. Hessian, Sacking and CBC. Mismanagement, corruption, inefficiency and lack of skilled manpower have gripped the BJMC mills. The mills should be run professionally to remain competitive in the open market but that are not practiced in case of BJMC, which is causing hundreds of millions of taka losses to the national exchequer. Time has come to put pragmatic/realistic thought on the jute sector to revive this promising sector. The government should devise plans to bring back the glory of the golden fibre.The demand for environmental friendly jute products are on the rise in the global market and Bangladesh should tap this opportunity by implementing some short-, mid- and long-term plans to rejuvenate the ailing jute sector of Bangladesh. At pres ent it is useless to be nostalgic about old prime era of our jute industry. Now we must formulate a pragmatic short, mid and long-term plan keeping in mind about future needs of jute goods' demand. Instead of remembering past mistakes, we must take lessons out of that and look forward with practical solutions which will bring back viability to our ailing Jute sector. This should be our only prime object. Recommendations Some recommendations are prescribed below to be considered by the government in the greater interest of the jute sector: To revive the glory of the jute industry, a high-powered committee should be constituted comprising the Finance Secretary under the direction of the Chief Adviser. †¢ The government should implement some short-, mid- and long-term proposals in a bid to revive the jute sector. †¢ The exiting jute mills of the Bangladesh Jute Mills Corporation should be converted into public limited companies keeping some shares in the hands of the governme nt like that of the Bangladesh Biman. The government may create a â€Å"Regulatory Board† to run its existing corporations professionally and efficiently. The Regulatory Body will monitor every unit of the corporation and ensure their accountability. The government should arrange a ‘special fund' to upgrade its existing jute mills to purchase necessary spares for machineries. Under this package the government will provide 50 per cent of the total credit as grants and banks will give rest 50 percent on a long-term credit to jute mills. †¢ Irregular power supply is adversely affecting production of existing jute mills by cutting their competitiveness. The government may ask donor agencies like the World Bank (WB) and the Asian Development Bank (ADB) to arrange a ‘special fund' to provide long term loans at 3. 00 per cent interest to the existing jute mills to help them to procure â€Å"stand-by generators†. The use of stand by generators by the jute mill s will help to save electricity at our national grid. Government is giving 7. 5 per cent cash incentives on jute goods exports. To expand the market and increase competitiveness, the rate of cash incentives should be raised to 15 per cent from present rate. †¢ The government should enact a law making mandatory or compulsory to use of jute bags for internal consumption in packaging. To meet requirement of local markets, an initiative is necessary to pack sugar, rice and pulse in 5-10 K. G. jute bags. The use of jute goods in the local market is limited. To increase the use, the government should also make law to use compulsory at least 20 per cent of total sugar and cement packaging with jute bags. The jute industries being an agro based and 100% export-oriented industry, the commercial banks are not implementing the Bangladesh Bank's order to provide export credit at lower interest rate (7%), commercial banks should provide â€Å"Export Cash Credit† to jute mills which t hey give to the leather sector. †¢ Crisis of quality jute seed is a regular phenomenon in the country every year. The total requirement of jute seeds are 4,000/5,000 tons against government supply of only 400-500 tons. To meet local demand, sub-standard Indian seeds enter the Bangladesh market through imports and smuggling. To improve the situation and ensure quality seeds, the government should set up ‘seed bank' to distribute seeds among planters at subsidized rate. †¢ Government should also arrange to provide fertilizer at subsidized rate. Bangladesh Jute Research Institute (BJRI) should also take appropriate measures to familiarize their new invention â€Å"retting process† among the farmers. †¢ Lack of skilled manpower has put the industries in grave situation. To overcome the situation at least a ‘jute college' may be arranged to set up at one of the closed BJMC jute mills. To address this situation promptly, government should introduce  "Diploma Course† on jute in the six textile institutes as early as these are under the ministry of textile and jute. The significance of Mongla Port has increased as several hundred industrial units have been set in the southern part of the country recently. The government should initiate necessary steps to expand and develop the Mongla Port. †¢ The government should also take measures to promote and expand international' trade of jute products by maintaining existing markets and by developing of new end users. References 1. http://cpd. org. bd/pub_attach/op78. pdf 2. http://www. thefinancialexpress-bd. com/more. php? news_id=14562 3. http://www. business-standard. com/india/news/jute-industry-seeks-banimportsbangladesh/381205 4. http://www. stoppressbd. com/home/news_details/66948 5. http://www. banglapedia. rg/httpdocs/HT/J_0137. HTM 6. http://www. worldjute. com/jute_bangladesh/bangladesh_jute_news. html 7. http://www. thefinancialexpress-bd. com/more. php? news_id=123 813&date=2012-03-18 8. www. theindependentbd. com/business/finance/30375-govt-targets-to-double-jute-production-in-2011-12. html 9. http://www. worldjute. com/about_jute/juthist. html 10. www. jute-industry. com/history-of-jute. html 11. http://www. thedailystar. net/suppliments/2011/anniversary/part4/pg7. htm 12. http://www. bangladeshembassyinitaly. com/bangladesh. php 13. http://www. experiencebangladesh. com/bangladesh-business-jute. php 14. http://bangladesheconomy. wordpress. com/category/jute/

Research on Premarital Sex Essay

Premarital sex is sexual intercourse engaged in by persons who are unmarried. It is generally used in reference to individuals who are presumed not yet of marriageable age or between adults who will presumably marry eventually, but who are engaging in sexual activity prior to marriage (Wikipedia, 2009). Premarital Sex is so common nowadays because of the messages we receive from most TV shows and movies that tells us â€Å"everyone is doing it†. So, is it okay to engage in premarital sex? That is the common question among teens and engaged couples but then again, there are a lot of factors to consider – Is it moral? Is it safe physically and emotionally? What are the causes and effects of premarital sex? What are the teachings of the Church regarding the issue? Is it moral? Morality is such a big factor to consider when deciding whether or not to have premarital sex. The Bible refers to premarital sex as fornication. Fornication is sexual intercourse between people who are not married to each other (Premarital Sex, 2009). According to the Bible there is a distinction between premarital sex and adultery. â€Å"Adultery involves married persons while premarital sex involves those who are unmarried. Premarital Sex is just as much as sin as adultery and all other forms of sexual immortality. They all involve having sexual relations with someone you are not married to† (Premarital Sex, 2009). Is it physically and emotionally safe? Read more:  Essay on Causes of Premarital Sex People don’t usually consider the physical and emotional effects of premarital sex. Safety is one thing that should be given a careful thought. Condoms could not totally reduce the risk of getting AIDS caused by the HIV virus and other sexually transmitted diseases. â€Å"Sex is an emotional experience and it affects our lives in ways we don’t understand.† (Premarital Sex, 2009) After giving favorable attention or interest to premarital sex, people usually develop feelings of guilt, disturbance, doubt, resentment, lack of respect, tension, low self-esteem, and other unnecessary emotional pain. What are the causes and effects of premarital sex? People engage in premarital sex for different reasons. Teens usually do this because of peer pressure. They wanted to belong and be accepted by their group. Engaged couples on the other hand commits premarital sex because they are hoping for pleasure and the fulfillment of their sexual desires while others do this because of the hope that this might bring them intimacy. The horrible effects of these short-lived reasons are sexually transmitted diseases, early marriage, unwanted pregnancies, abortions, placing a child for adoption and unnecessary feelings like emptiness and unfulfillment. Rarely does a premarital sexual relationship stay together long enough to make it to marriage vows. People engaging in this activity will experience the heart rending emotional upset that comes with breaking up, and when people experience multiple break-ups it numbs them. They have conditioned themselves to run, instead of working out the problems that arises within marriages. â€Å"Divorce statistics are higher when the couple engaged in premarital sex or lived together before deciding to marry.† (Sex beforemarriage, 2009) What are the teachings of the Church regarding the issue? According to the Bible, abstinence is God’s only policy when it comes to premarital sex. â€Å"Abstinence saves lives, protects babies, gives sexual relations to proper value, and most importantly abstinence honors God† (Premarital Sex, 2009).As mentioned above, The Bible refers to premarital sex as fornication. The Bible explains, â€Å"†¦The body is not meant for sexual immortality, but for the Lord, and the Lord for the body† (1 Corinthians 6:13). Galatians 5:19 talks about the same thing, â€Å"The acts of the sinful nature are obvious: sexual immorality, impurity†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Ephesians 5:3 says â€Å"But among you there must not be even a hint of sexual immorality, or of any kind of impurity, or of greed, because these are improper for God’s holy people.† These verses show that the Bible encourages complete and total abstinence from premarital sex. According to Vogt J. & S., (2009), â€Å"The Church calls single people to chastity because human sexual expression carries with it the power of intimate union and of creating new life. It’s not to be taken lightly. If a man and woman aren’t committed to each other for the long haul, the bond created by their sexual union isn’t a total gift of self and is thus conditional.† In context, Hansen H.R. says that sex should be a sacred expression of love between a husband and wife and that both men and women should abstain from sexual activity until their marriage. It teaches that sex before marriage is an expression of lust, not love, and admonishes its members not to participate in it or in any other kinds of activities that excite sexual desires. Pope John Paul II spoke extensively about the holiness of our bodies and the meaning of sexual intimacy in his â€Å"Theology of the Body† lectures. Theologian Mary Shivanadansums up his thinking: â€Å"The b ody constitutes an expression of the entire person and thus calls us to responsibility† ( The Living Light , Spring 2001). This is a sexual responsibility for married couples as well as for single men and women. Premarital Sex is often seen as a recreation. People look at it in a shallow way that they only see sex as something that gives pleasure. Sex was designed for married couples to enjoy the pleasure and excitement of sexual relations (Premarital Sex, 2009). â€Å"The primary purpose of sex is not recreation but rather for reproduction. Sex is meant to be a spiritual experience that extends past the marriage bed into the everyday life of a married couple. It locks the couple together in the purpose that God has set before them which is to procreate† (Sex before marriage, 2009).5 I have conducted interviews regarding my topic, Premarital Sex. I asked people what is their own definition of premarital sex, and the causes and effects of it. â€Å"Premarital Sex is the contact of a man and woman without the blessing of the Church. Teenagers engage in such because they want to forget their problems. Also, they are not guided by their parents. Early marriage and early pregnancy are the effects of premarital sex.† Alona Sace, 30. â€Å"Sex prior to marriage. It is caused by extensive curiosity, and natural instincts. The effects include sexually transmitted diseases and unwanted child birth.† ,Liezel Solas, 22. â€Å"The engagement to pre-marital sex is completely immoral because it’s not blessed by the church, it would disrespect and disobey the law of the church which takes hold to the sanctity of marriage. Premarital sex, is the engagement of two human beings without putting God in the center, it was done out of lust and dirt. It takes away the freedom of each individual. Causes of premarital sex are the lack of the right education on the consequences of premarital union. People engaging themselves were innocent on the outcome and danger that may happen, rebellion to the parents is also a cause and in every cause of a mistake there is an effect that follows. An accident pregnancy or the pregnancy which was not even planned a mistake. An early marriage will also happen wherein both parties ar en’t ready.† Rev. Fr. Jojie Mangui. â€Å"Nowadays, premarital sex is just a trend that is already acceptable. It’s quite normal for people to actually do it no matter what age, or what state in life you have. For me, why give your virginity after marriage, if it will result to break up. Sex is sex, satisfaction guaranteed. If you do it and your partner gets pregnant, there would always be ways. As long as you want to live, you’ll always have reasons to live. â€Å"pavirgin† is not IN nowadays. The common causes why people engage in premarital sex are lack of confidence, women allow themselves to engage with different men because they feel accepted, an, they simply want to try it, feel it, and taste it. In effect, they become immoral, unaccepted by the society and this would also affect the growth of population. And what’s worse is that premarital sex may also lead to death. Not all people who engage in premarital sex are ready to have a baby, so they tend to abort it and completely destroy their lives. † Bethjoven Arenas, 22. â€Å"Premarital Sex for me is okay. Sexual preferences and compatibilities are considered when you are looking for a lifetime partner. It differs from person to person. If you and your partner have different sexual needs and preference, do you think you would create a lifetime of sexual happiness? Or would you live happily ever after? I guess not. I think it is okay to make sure rather than to regret it afterwards.† Criselda Guevarra,31. Summary Premarital Sex is not just about being immoral, but it certainly has risks involved. It is not physically and emotionally safe, plus it has long-term effects that could turn people’s lives upside down. The Church is also against it because it destroys the sanctity of marriage. Staying clean until marriage is the right thing to do if people wish to find a good person as a lifetime partner. The Bible has a word to describe ‘SAFE’ sex: it’s called marriage. Conclusion Premarital sex has no moral grounds, it is against God, and it is unsafe physically and emotionally. Although sex is pleasurable, it is designed by God to be enjoyed by two married people. Bibliography http://www.allaboutworldview.org/premarital-sex-2.htm http://www.allaboutworldview.org/premarital-sex.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premarital_sex

Is music a good tool for health? Essay

According to the article, â€Å" Is Music a Good Tool for Health â€Å", by Elizabeth Scott, hospitals are using music as therapy to treat different illness, such as depression, pain, movement, and even cancer. First, the author states that research shows faster beats helps with concentration and focus, while slower music calms the mind. However, music has a lasting effect on an individual that is positive. Next, she claims that research also shows music therapy can help with breathing, heart rate, and relaxation. Lastly, she mentions that music can be used to control chronic stress and anxious. One Idea that I find significant from the article â€Å" Is Music a Good Tool for Health†, is â€Å" Hospitals are beginning to use music therapy to help with pain management, depression, to promote movement, to calm patients, to ease muscle tension, and other benefits. † In other words, music is beginning to have an important roll for different treatments in hospitals, by helping patients who suffers of different illnesses. One example that supports this idea is when I got pneumonia, two years ago. I had to stay in the hospital for like about two to three weeks, but the idea of staying there for that long was already killing me. The first two days were the worst days of my life, I remember how I didn’t even want to eat, and because of that my defense was going down and down, which was not good at all for my illnesses. However, since I had a studio recording I used to make beats, so I asked my brother to synchronize my iPad with some of the projects I have done it, and bring it to me. Once I got it I downloaded a beats maker application named â€Å" Fruit Loops Mobile â€Å", which I was going to use to work with the projects I had. I started of doing corrections and improvements on my beats, spending almost all the time of my days listening to my music on my iPad. The concentration and dedication I putted to listen to my music every day and make every effect sounds great, walked my mind away into a certain point that I forgot I was not home or I had a disease. The medications I had to take every two hours, the nurse routine of checking my defense every day or having my mother on top of me so I could eat right were not a way to annoy me, as long as I was able to listen to my music I was pleasure to do everything they said. After all, I left the hospital in only 10 days, which was at least 4 days, less than what we all expected. With this personal example, I proved that music therapy does promote benefits to health. In addition, I found that music helps people to keep a stable behavior and stay them away from stress. I remember when I was in the hospital; there was a lady next to my room who suffered of depression. I felt bad for the girl because nobody was coming to visit her; therefore, she was always crying and screaming that nobody loves her. It was a really sad, I felt empathy for her. However, that could not disturb my mind, once I started of listening to music I forgot about the world. It is like if I did not heard the lady screaming or crying, all that remains in my mind were waves of melodies from the songs and beats that I was listening to. It was all about the music. In conclusion, I truly agree with the author that music is an amazing medicinal therapy. I prove this with the two personal experiences I wrote down before. Besides a great method of relaxation, music also promotes good health for any person who consumes it at its best.

Apply the legal parameters and ethical nursing implications of therapy Case Study

Apply the legal parameters and ethical nursing implications of therapy with selected pharmacotherapeutic agents - Case Study Example The drug has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States. Up to this point, there should be drug laws and restrictions governing the use of drugs. It is very useful when making ethical decisions to understand the different considerations that are involved with every individual. Importance of Ethical Theory in Nursing Nursing ethics tend to be on the side of caring rather than curing. In nursing theories, everything is focused on virtues that make a good nurse. The theories can be applied by the nurses in different areas to make decisions in health care institutions. These ethical theories are applied between a nurse and a patient. It is the reality that nursing ethics emphasize the day to day ethics practiced other than the moral dilemmas. The nursing ethics help in giving care and support and in the relationship with the patients. This helps the people to make their informed consent on treatment (Lilley, Collins, Harrington & Snyder (2010). Ethical theory hel ps the nurses develop a respect and dignity for people and their autonomous choices and to practice confidentiality where by information is only shared with permission. Steps in Ethical Decision-Making Model There are eight steps in ethical decision–making model. They are found clearly in American Nurses Association Code of Ethics as a guideline for protecting both nurse and patient. Step one is Identifying the problem and considering if it is in reality ethical or not. It involves the perception of the situation where by different people are involved in the discussion of the problem that is encountered (Lilley et al., 2010). The consideration of ideas is on the scientific experience and the quantity of the medical and nursing situation. Second step is the problem identification. This analyzes what happened in the first step on the history of the patient in relation to the problem. Step three is the review and consideration of the ethical codes. This step helps in the value a nalysis by assessing the general ethical values. It helps to understand the conflicting values involved. Step four is to be familiar with the laws and regulations as well as that of the institution. It basically stands a better chance of making a personal choice of letting people know about the fact of what you did, what is right or wrong about you and how you would feel either guilty or ashamed? Step five is seeking consultation in determining the personal choices (Todd, 2010). Step six is a consideration of possible action and reactions on the side of explaining moral arguments about one’s choice. It helps one to develop hypothesis and reach a conclusion. Step seven is foreseeing the results of the actions on the options and contemplations on decision limited on the demand on the patient. A good consideration is the impact of every action taken regarding the values. Last step is on the decision action after carefully gathering information and facts and familiarizing oneself with the circumstances. It is involved in the final decision about the situational change on the patient, the things that should be improved and evaluation of the decision for further discussion. Nurse’s response to patient’s statement made in question D is on the techniques of therapeutic communication whereby the nurse should use a broad opening statement by encouraging the patient to open up and express himself further. The nurse should not make an assumption to its meaning but

Identify major Islamic eras and key figures in Islamic history who Essay

Identify major Islamic eras and key figures in Islamic history who have had the greatest impact on the Muslim faith and on world - Essay Example The mortal occupation by the Prophet was followed by Abu Bakr who was the first of the four caliphs accepted by Sunni Muslims as the vastly guided caliphs (al-khulafa al-rashidun). Abu Bakr was regarded as a man of great sanctity and piety who ruled religiously during his political reign in two years despite intermittent blunders and biased verdicts. Abu Bakr’s reign was marred with strong forces of Arab tribalism group that threatened to break up the political unity created by the Prophet. However, Abu Bakr was incredibly successful in suppressing the tribal waves and preserved the unity of the newly founded political entity in Medina. The second caliph, Umar who was considered by the Sunnis as the most successful caliph reigned between 13/634 and 23/644 with a great record of preserving the unity of Islamic state and spreading it to other states. Umar , who remarkably lived a life of simplicity and austerity, successfully captured Jerusalem whilst showing immense respect to the houses of worship of the Jews and Christians. He further made history in spreading Islam in various countries such as Persia Syria, and North America. Umar was later succeeded by Uthman who was chosen through consensus of the community elders from 23/644 to 35/656 ensured wealth influx in Medina and the rest of Arab territory. Uthman’s administration was flawed nepotism claims which ws evident when he appointed his relative Muawiyah governor of Syria. In his reign, Uthman caused uprising against himself, which eventually led to his death. Muawiyah later moved against Uthman’s successor thus precipitating the division of the body politic that continued to date. Ali did not rule for a long period because of civil strife and wars on various borders that were led by his Shiah followers against Quraysh and his companions Talha and Zubayr. Ali afterward moved capital of Islam to Kufa in Iraq where he had many followers and confronted Syrians who did not like him. Althoug h Ali was successful in this Siffin battle, the Syrians came with Qurans in their hands pleading for arbitration, which was easily accepted by Ali. The movement of Islamic capital to Kufa led to permanent departure of political and cultural centre from Arabia though the religious centre continued to remain in Hejaz. Umayyads, after Ali’s death, ruled from central Asia to Spain and France for a long time but were confronted by efforts to restore power of aristocracy of Mecca and Bedouin rebellion against central authority and Shiite dissent. Abd al-Malik later restored peace and was preferred by both sides. Non-Arabs who believed that Umayyad were Arabs brought a fierce resistance. The Persian general led by Banu Abbas captured Damascus with the help of Persian supporters. However, the Muslim Spanish was established by one of the Umayyad thus maintaining the golden age of Muslim rule in Spain. Abbasids rule later marked the classical Islamic civilization by preserving the Isla mic empire, unity, Islamizing many institutions, and maintained caliphs. During Abbasids reign, Baghdad became the greatest Islamic cultural centre. Renowned Abbasid caliphs’ Harun al-Rashid and al-Ma’mun were the greatest patrons of arts and sciences. At this period, Islamic beliefs and knowledge started to grow such as codification of Shari’

Ethics and Governance Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ethics and Governance - Case Study Example The cause for Friedman’s statement is probably due to the birth of ‘Ethical business’, this is where companies will demonstrate a social conscience, possibly to gain support from consumers who buy their products, but will cut the profits of the shareholders in a company. Freidman also assumes that there is a link between the birth of ‘Ethical business’ and the growth of left-wing academia, particularly in the United States, although I am not convinced of the relation between the two and that one affects the other. However, Friedman believes that it is these academics that are making the businessmen act like â€Å"unwitting puppets† who are â€Å"preach ­ing pure and unadulterated socialism†. Still, I believe that Friedman is putting across his biased political views with this statement, where he thinks that anything relating to socialism is automatically bad so he does not really back up this quote. I also disagree with Friedman in tha t he believes that the â€Å"intellectual forces† really have that much influence on businessmen to make them â€Å"unwitting puppets†. The factor which would make businessmen turn to a more ethical approach could be down to a rapidly expanding interest in business ethics and the rise of the middle-class looking to ‘clear their conscience’ by buying ethically. 2. Friedman (1970) discusses whether corporations can have a â€Å"social responsibility† or whether having responsibilities is a uniquely human trait. Friedman argues, reasonably convincingly, that a company cannot have the responsibility since it is â€Å"artificial†. We can see this in his article when he says â€Å"Only people can have responsibilities. A corporation is an artificial person and in this sense may have artificial responsibilities†. This would lead him to the conclusion that corporations have no moral obligation to be ethical since they are not moral beings and that the only responsibilities of a company â€Å"is to increase its profits†.

We Were Soldiers Once and Young Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

We Were Soldiers Once and Young - Essay Example The following observation by the author indicates how the soldiers, many of them young and a few war veterans, stood by the â€Å"7 Army Values of "Loyalty, Duty, Respect, Selfless Service, Honor, Integrity, Personal Courage" Moore argues in the prologue, â€Å"We were the children of the 1950s and we went where we were sent because we loved out country.†(xviii) This sums up all the qualities that are expected of an American soldier. The story of the book from Chapter I, â€Å"Heat of the Battle’ to Chapter 26, â€Å"Reflections and Perceptions,† provides the vivid accounts of what must have transpired at the battle front and in the minds of those who died and the mute witness were their mutilated bodies. Those who survived provided the vital information about the historic days of war. November 14, 1965 was the fateful day. Four hundred and fifty men of Harold Moore’s battalion engaged the Vietnamese regulars in a helicopter assault on a landing Zone in the Ia Drang Valley of South Vietnam’s Central Highlands. America was trying out new tactics and weapons since World War II. The troops were far outnumbered, with more than two thousand enemy soldiers who challenged men under Moore’s command. Brutal firefights followed until November 16 and the enemy was repulsed. Counter attack by the North Vietnamese was fast. Next day another American battalion was attacked, taking the American army by surprise. They held the battlefield, but suffered heavy casualties. Casualties on either side were heavy. Two hundred and thirty-four Americans were killed in the battle of Ia Drang. Each death was an extraordinary example of heroism and describing one such martyrdom of a soldier Moore writes, â€Å" We discovered in that depressing, hellish place, where death was our constant companion, that we loved each other, we killed for each other, we died for each other.†(6) Narrating one specific incident he sums up, â€Å"Just

Business Proposal Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Business Proposal - Assignment Example The result of the gym facility would be a reduction of lost man-hours and related expenses due to health issues. Setting up a Gym facility will encourage employees to exercise regularly. Employees will not be likely to get sick when they exercise. Fitness makes a person resistant to the majority of sicknesses than an unfit person (Edlin & Golanty, 2014). It reduces absenteeism in the workplace. Fit employees are highly motivated to become leaders, they feel ready to tackle challenging tasks that others are afraid to handle. Fitness also encourages setting of goals and achieving them. Employees who can set aggressive goals and meet them are essential to the organizations development. Fitness comes along with a positive attitude. When employees have such an attitude, they are also likely to have a physical and mental balance that brings in a positive attitude in the entire workplace. According to research, fitness reduces stress levels in employees (Kerr, Griffiths & Cox, 1996). The company could install the Gym alongside the offices with unlimited gym hours during work hours and off hours. The employees require training on how to use this service. So as to achieve this, a gym instructor will be employed. Its also recommendable that a nutrition education be introduced. It would be recommendable if the company set a day for Gym attendance; a day when every employee is available for the exercises. Possible barriers to this proposed project would include; high installation costs, lack of enough space in the workplace, and uncooperative employees. However, the cost of installing a gym facility will be far much less than the rising cost of related health problems occurring due to unfitness. By the setting up the gym facility, the overall productivity levels of the employees shall improve (Kerr, Griffiths & Cox, 1996). The organization needs to consider this Gym facility installation to enhance its workers productivity. The health of the overall

United States Probation Officer Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

United States Probation Officer - Essay Example Further, serving as a witness in criminal court proceedings shows my commitment to justice and offenders’ behaviour modulation. I have also been able to engage in security circulation activities amongst clients and colleagues, acquiring vital verbal and written communication skills in the process. These skills will be paramount in successful execution of my duties as a probation officer. I will be highly honored to use learnt skills, to serve the community, as a probation officer with the United States Probation Department in New York. I am up to the challenge of serving as a proficient social worker capable of handling the wide array of offenders, together with their families whether in court, prisons or even in mainstream community. I will fulfil my duties with diligence, to foster the department’s success in rehabilitating offenders and preventing them from reengaging in criminal activity. I intend to achieve this by challenging offenders’ behavior, and helping them reform their attitude and demeanor, thus protecting the general public from possibly of multiple offenses. I have also committed myself to learning people and their behaviour, as part of my passion for law enforcement and due to recognizing the fact that a probation officer deals with diverse personalities and duties. Even though a career in law enforcement is bound to be challenging, I am confident that being a federal probation officer will give me a unique opportunity to optimally utilize my analytical, academic and immense work experience. I recognize that a principal part of my job will entail extensive interaction with law enforcement agencies and justice establishments like courts of law. For instance, in order to ensure that offenders abide by the law I will need court orders and decrees to set offenders in the right path toward correction. Further, in the course of administering my duties to the community, I will need to advise individuals to seek justice from the courts

Drugs in sport Essay Example for Free

Drugs in sport Essay Drugs in sport is a major problem at this moment in time as it is beginning to become easier to attain drugs in your locally area. There is four different aspects that will be looked at in this essay are the four different aspects of drugs in sport which are philosophy, sociology, psychology and physiology. Each of these different aspects is influential in drugs in sport. These issues are major in sport, as they not only affect the professional athletes that people think that they do. A survey taken of sefton Liverpool is only one example how it affects everyone not just professionals. This showed that anabolic steroids had been the third most commonly offered drug behind cannabis and amphetamines, revealing that 6à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½4% of boys and 1à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½3% of girls had been offered anabolic steroids (Clarke 1999). We can see the problems with drugs in sport in that if children find out there favourite players or athletes are taking these drugs then they must be tempted and the survey shows how easy it is for them to gain possession of the drug. Drugs are a major issue that has to be looked at. Un officially reports claim that there is as many as twenty to forty percent of gym users taking perfromencing-enhancing drugs. This shows the severity of drugs in sport. (Drug scope website) The first aspect to look at is the philosophy of drugs in sport. Philosophy is described as the study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence or, a theory or attitude that guides ones behaviour. (Concise Oxford English Dictionary 2004) The philosophy behind dugs in sport is complex as there are many different philosophies that people will take. One reason is because of their desire to win. The win at all costs theory is rife throughout sport at all levels. The fact that drugs are used widely throughout sport is because of this theory. If a competitor thinks that he will be able to get the edge on any of his opponents he will take it. But the win at all cost attitudes towards sport is essential in athletes taking these performance-enhancing drugs. It was really rammed home what length professional athletes will go to become successful and win. The win at all cost mentality was evident at the biggest stage of sport the Olympics. At the last Olympics there were 24 doping violations throughout the whole of the games. This is double the amount found at the previously highest amount taken at the Olympics. (BBC website) It shows that competitors will do whatever it takes to win that gold medal. The philosophy for many people who decide to go ahead and take drugs is because they believe everyone else does. An interview with a professional weightlifter called Tammy Thompson. She showed the philosophy of since everyone else takes drugs then so should I. in the interview she t6alks about the reason why she started to take performance enhancing drugs. Instead of training harder or going to better techniques, I figured they were taking drugs and I would too. Id catch up. (Todd, 1987) This shows one reason behind this competitor took these drugs and why many other do. The theory that when they lose it is because everyone else is taking drugs not because they cant make the grade in there sport. The philosophy of doing what everyone else is doing is probably the main reason for the competitors taking drugs. When you are watching certain sports you automatically believe that they are taking drugs to enhance their performance. Sports like power lifting, or bodybuilding is rife in them and it is obvious that people would take the drugs to keep up with the other people in their sport if they want to be successful. If we look at taking drugs in a philosophic viewpoint, we always come to the fact that does it really affect the persons success. Are these performance-enhancing drugs actually the magic pill the media makes them out to be? (Simon 1984). They may improve the performance of the competitors taking them but they still have to have the desire to be successful and train to make these drugs work. The drug will not suddenly make an average performer become world class. The person still needs to have that core skill and determination to train and win. We see the taking of these drugs as cheating. Gunther Luschen describes cheating as cheating in sport is the act through which the manifestly or latently agreed upon conditions for winning such a contest are changed in favour of one side. As a result, the principle of equality of chance beyond differences of skill and strategy is violated (1976). Throughout your early experience of sport as a child you are told of the philosophy that cheaters never win. But as a child growing up we see people cheating by taking these drugs every day and the children will see these and it will become even more acceptable than it is at this moment in time. Children are seeing there favourite stars suspected of taking drugs such as Rio Ferdinand and they will start to believe that this is all that you can do to become successful in sport. This is just one case of high profile names being found or believed to be taking drugs while competing in sport. When you look on what the philosophy is behind the reason performers take drugs there is a wide selection. But one thing through all the theories that you may find for the use of performance enhancing drugs is that they are related to the person or persons winning. No matter what why they put there reason for taking these drugs it will always come back to the fact that they want to win and be successful. The next factor that I will be looking at the affect of taking the drugs has on a persons psychology. There is psychological affects that come upon a person are different for each stage of use of performance enhancing drugs. Some affects of taking these drugs are to have changes in moods, become more confident in your self and you become more motivated and enthusiastic. These may seem like good affects but these come early in the usage of drugs. Eventually the person will come prone to mood swings; they will create aggressive feeling, which grow into violence and hostile behaviour. (Corrigan 1996) we can see just from these affect the severity of taking these drugs. You think of the amount of people that are on these drugs and you can see the problem that arise with people taking performance enhancing drugs, these violent behaviour are also what led to such incidents as including reckless driving or crashing cars, assaults, marriage break-ups, domestic violence, child abuse, suicide and attempted murder or murder. (Schulte, Hail, Boyer, 1993) We can see the potential havoc that these drugs can cause to a person psychological health. When you look at the psychological effect that taking these drugs have upon the persons taking anabolic steroids one familiar factor continues to arise. This factor is that a person will develop mood disorders. Pope and Katz (1990) found that 22 per cent of bodybuilders and footballers were found to meet the American Psychiatric Associations criteria for a manic or depressive episode while on anabolic steroids, it was also discovered that once stopped taking the drug there symptoms subsided. This shows how taking these steroids can affect a persons psychological well being. The drug affects people in a variety of ways, be it like above in their moods and make them come a bit more depressed. Where as in the other reports found that taking these anabolic steroids affect a person aggression we can see this in a study taken by Choi and Pope (1994) they took study of 24 anabolic steroid user and 14 non users. The findings were that while a person who was taking a drug cycle they were more likely to report verbal and physical fights with their spouse compared with the non-user and people that were not currently on a drug cycle. We can see from these affects that a person has while he or she is on a drug cycle. This is a worrying thought as we have already seen the amount of drug user there is thought to be. Among the community of steroid users there is a term called roid rage, which described by Wright, Grogan and Hunter (2001) as an uncontrollable outbursts of aggression. In report taken by Beel (1994) people who are taking these drugs compare normally to the general public in education, income, height and alcohol consummation. Though are likely to report roid rage as a response to small amounts of provocation. This is a worrying finding if it does not take a lot to make a person go into an uncontrollable fit of rage. We see the stats of how many people can get hold of these drugs and how many people are currently using the drug. But you only realise the fact that it affects the people around them as well. If they take one of these roid rage it may be the people nearest to them they take it out on and in s ome cases that can be there wives or their children. Looking at the overall effect of drugs on the whole on the user psychological state of mind it is worrying thought that there are so many effects that can occur a person during cycles of drug use. These affects are not just affecting the person themselves but the people nearest to them they are also affected. We see all the problems that come with taking these drugs and yet they still take them knowing that they will affects them and this shows that they are willing to do whatever it takes to be successful in there goal. This links in with the philosophy of winning at all costs on previously in the paper. The next factor that I will be looking at is the sociology behind why people take these performance-enhancing drugs. A main factor in the use of these drugs is to enhance their body appearance. When giving reasons for using these performance-enhancing drugs improving body image was most frequently given answer amongst gym users. (Taylor and Black 1987) this answer shows that people are to this being socially acceptable and look the correct way to people. This stems from the public image and the role models that are made of sports stars. Examples are rife in all countries, are it here in Briton where a lot of our superstars are given the clean cut image and built up to a superstar status. You look at Dwain Chambers a major force in 100 meters sprinting who is portrayed to the public as the greatest thing since sliced bread. Chambers ultimately caught with taking banned substance THG while in his training camp in Germany. (Parry 2006) This has ruined his image of a role model. People looking up at chambers will think this must be acceptable and the only way to be successful. It promotes that image in society that to become as successful as him you will have to take performance-enhancing drugs. We see the affect that drugs have in sport through the number of people caught each year. But when you look and see that children are thinking of beginning to play sport and want to be successful you can see the problem. Linford Christie and Olympic medalist himself stated that athletics has become so corrupt with drugs that he would not want he children involved in it. (Savulescu, Foddy and Clayton 2004) when you see an Olympic champion saying such bad thing about a sport it helps you realize the severity of drug taking in sport. This affects him even though to the society who thinks it was best time of his life, but in reality he does not even want his children to experience this side of a professional sportsman society where drugs are common and not really thought about. When you look at society and who their role models are especially in England the people they look up to are the professional footballers. So the affect of any of these players taking drugs would affect the society as a whole and promote taking these performance-enhancing drugs. In survey conducted by Waddington, Malcolm, Roderick, et al (2004) of professional footballers in England, they found that there was at four premiership players using enhancing drugs. This has massive affect on society as if these people are thought to be gaining in success and in the money that they earn then it must have affect on society on how they react to this. Public see there top stars such as Gerrard, Rooney, or Henry taking drugs they will obviously think that this is how they can immolate there heroes. This shows how drugs in sport affect the society as a whole. The sociology side of drugs in sport is big in that it affects a lot of different society I not just one singular society. We look at athletes who get caught taking enhancing drugs and they are role models to all aspiring athletes or competitors and to no that they only achieved these heights through taking drugs only promotes the need for competitors to take drugs. A big example is in America baseball where Mark McGwire broke the record for most home run hits in baseball history for one season. Two weeks before McGwire broke this record he admitted to taking performance-enhancing drug but once he broke that record he was still treated like a hero and built up as a great of the game. But with this they also to a society of aspiring baseball players promoted taking this drug to become a player as good as McGwire was. The final aspect that you have to look at is what are the physiological affects when you are taking drugs. While a person is taking these performance-enhancing drugs there are physical affects that occur to the body. Strauss and Yesalis (1991) said that while a person is taking anabolic steroid that there is a growth in the size of a person while on these drugs. Though this is a plus of becoming bigger or being more successful at there sport there is also the downside of taking these drugs. Some of these problems are testicular atrophy, prostate enlargement, difficulty in urination secondary to changes in the prostate, (Daigle 1990) these are not shown to the buyer the problems that can occur from taking anabolic steroids, this is only one of many possible symptoms. When we look at all the different forms drugs caffeine also come up as a banned substance in terms off athletes. This drug has an affect on the muscles of the body and makes them go for longer it act upon the skeletal muscles. (Ganslen 1974) Drugs the different types of drugs which a person takes are vast they can range from drugs that are designed to produce muscle mass and make the performer bigger such as anabolic steroids, or drugs designed to make your red blood cell count become greater which are called EPO. EPO proper name Erythropoietin. EPO is a hormone produced by the kidneys that produces red blood cells within the body. By injecting themselves with extra EPO, athletes can not only improve oxygen absorption but also potentially increase the metabolism and healing process of muscles. (Bennett, 2003) This drug is helpful with professional coaching as it means that the person can train for longer. We can see simply from the two different drugs the radical changes that taking these performance-enhancing drugs can have on people. When you look at drugs in sport through each of these different aspects you can see a lot of how sever the problem is. Each aspect links in with each other to form different problems. Looking at the different whys that it harms a person it is not only a person body that it is affecting but also their mind. You also look at top professionals from all around the world; they are role models to children from their countries who wish to be like them. So when they decide to take these drugs it is there body they are damaging but also the body of there fans who think that it is acceptable to take drugs if there heroes are doing so as well. It is the responsibilities to get a message out that drugs a re bad and should never be used in enhance a competitors performance because there decision affects many more people.

Process Of Encoding And Decoding English Language Essay

Process Of Encoding And Decoding English Language Essay The main purpose of any classroom teaching in English is to improve the communicative abilities of the learners. To improve the communicative abilities, the classroom teaching has to be necessarily skill oriented. English language is widely used for communication purposes and so competence in language skills has become necessary to improve the communicative abilities specially listening, speaking, reading and writing (LSRW). Among these four skills, both listening and reading are called as receptive skills or passive skills and the other two skills, namely speaking and writing are called as productive skills or active skills. It is important to note that these skills are interconnected in order to achieve the overall objectives of communication. Every thing takes place and develops within the linguistic, cultural and social boundaries of the concerned society in which the particular language is spoken. It is the curriculum, syllabus; text book, teaching methodologies under the efficient functioning of the teacher in the classroom, those students are shaped in communicative competence. 2.4.1 Listening Skills Listening is the capacity to process information coming from an aural source. Such information is first filtered by the perceptual processes of the listener and absorbed into the short-term memory. Selected information is then stored into the long-term memory for retrieval at a later stage, if and when required. Listening is the first and foremost language mode that children acquire which provides the basis for the other language arts (Lundsteen, 1979). The activity of listening plays an important role in the process of acquiring/learning language whether it is first or second language. The linguistic items like phonemes, morphemes, lexical items, grammatical items, syntax and semantics are taught to listen in order to develop other modes of language viz; speaking, reading and writing. Listening is a conscious act. It is a complex, multi step process by which spoken language is converted into meaning in the mind (Lundsteen, 1979.1) Wolvin and Coakly (1985) have identified three steps in the process of listening which are receiving, attending and assigning meaning. In the first step, listeners receive the aural stimuli or the combined aural and visual stimuli presented by the speaker. In the second step, listeners focus on or attend to select stimuli while ignoring other distracting stimuli in the classroom. In the third step, listeners assign meaning to or understand the speakers message. The Process of Encoding and Decoding An act of communication requires encoder- the speaker and decoder- the listener. The speaker encodes the concept or message through a set of code. The listener decodes the concept or message from the set of code used by the speaker. That is, on the one hand, the act of encoding involves hearing the sounds into words, words into sentences, sentences into discourses. On the other hand, the act of decoding involves identifying the sounds, understanding the utterances and their meanings, and recognizing the prosodic features like tone, intonation, pitch, stress etc. used by the speaker. Listening comprehensive process Richards (1990) draws two way process of listening comprehension; top-down and bottom-up processing. In top-down processing, the listener gets an overall or general view of the text. This is facilitated in the listeners schemata allow him/her to have appropriate expectations of what he/she is going to come across. In bottom-up processing, on the other hand the listener focuses on individual words and phrases and achieves understanding by putting the detailed elements together to build up a whole (Harmer 2001). According to Harmer it is useful to see acts of listening texts as interactions between top-down and bottom-up processing. The Speaker-Listener Polarity For the effective exchange of information, both the speaker and the listener are expected to be equipped with the competence of the language which is used. That is, the same level of competence is expected from the listener and the speaker as well. Any short- coming in the linguistic competence of the listener or the speaker would affect the communication. So, both the polarities should be more or less equally equipped with the linguistic competence of that language for effective and efficient communication. Types of Listening Cralvin (1985) (as cited by Chidambaram, (2005) has identified eight categories of listening with due general purpose. Translational listening-learning new information (speeches, debates, political conventions). International listening-recognizing personal component of message (new pieces of speech, report). Critical listening- evaluating reasoning and evidence (news broadcast). Recreational listening- approaching random or integrated aspects or event. Listening for appreciation- information, making critical discriminations or selection. Selective listening- Selecting certain features at a time (phonetic features) Intensive listening- for details (vocabulary, grammar) Extensive listening- (general idea stories, rhymes, songs). Relationship between Speaking and Listening Speaking and listening are interdependent processes. The activity of speaking requires at least a listener, an individual or an audience. The speaker speaks keeping certain objectives in his or her mind. That is, speaking involves conveying meaning using a code and listening involves understanding the meaning with the help of code the speaker used. If it is a transaction, one way listening, the speaker does not receive feedback, but if it is interaction, two- way listening the speaker receives feedback for the listener. In transactional or conversational discourse, sending-receiving and receiving-sending are alternative phenomena. Purpose of Listening While listening to various texts, one applies different skills to process the text, depending on the purposes for which one is listening. Listening is the only medium through which one access the sounds of a language and all the supra segmental features of the language, such as tone, pitch, stress, pause, etc. Hence, listening is a pre-requisite for speaking and at a later stage, for reading. Without knowing how a language sounds, one cannot engage confidently in speaking in the language, and without knowing how the sound patterns of the language function, reading its graphics serves little purpose. Teaching discriminative listening helps the learner to comprehend the language. Listening can be a major source of pleasure and relaxation. Listening to the sounds in nature can be very soothing. Listening to someone reading stories aloud or poem is a pleasurable activity. Listening is also an important social skill. People listen to allow a speaker to talk through a problem. Children, as well as adults, serve as a systematic listener for friends and family members. Sub-Skills of Listening Each skill of language comprises a large number of sub skills, whose value and relevance vary from one situation to another. Rosts (1990) has distinguished two kinds of clusters of micro skills of listening. Enabling skills (those employed in order to perceive what the speaker is saying and to interpret what they intended to mean) and Enacting skills (those employed to respond appropriately to the message). Enabling Skills Perception Recognizing prominence within utterances, including: Discriminating sounds in words, especially phonemic contrasts. Discriminating strong and weak forms, phonetic change at word boundaries. Identifying use of stress and pitch (information units, emphasis, etc). Interpretation Formulating content sense of utterance, including: Deducing the meaning of unfamiliar words. Inferring implicit information. Inferring links between propositions. Enacting Skills Making an appropriate response including: Transcoding information into written form. Identifying which points need classification. Integrating information with other sources. Providing appropriate feedback to the speaker (Adapted from Rost, 1990. 152 153). (As cited by Chidambaram, 2005). Difficult Factors in Listening There are five major factors that researchers believe affect listening comprehension. Text characteristics (Variation in a listening passage / text or associated visual support. Interlocutor characteristics (Variation in the speakers personal characteristics. Task Characteristics (Variation in the purpose for listening and associated response). Listener Characteristics (Variation in the listeners cognitive activities and in the nature of the interaction between speaker and listener). Teaching Listening Comprehension Listening comprehension involves a number of language skills, though the listening may be the specific focus. Teaching listening can be categorized into two modes. The first one is teaching linguistic nuances like phonemic variations, discrimination of similar sounds in words, recognizing word boundaries, recognizing morphemes, distinguishing grammatical and lexical items in a sentence, etc. The second one is teaching how to listen to a context, how to deduce meaning for an unfamiliar word, how to recognize them over a discourse. These two modes are important and inseparable for teaching of listening comprehension. If any shortcoming is found in teaching of either of this mode, its consequences will be seen in other skills of language. Testing listening skills Listening tasks should aim at helping students arrive at the meaning of words and provoking an examination of the given material. The test items include: Dialogue, news, railway announcement, sentence, words, word pairs, numbers, telephone numbers, years, days were used to test listening comprehension of the students understudy. These test items aim at evaluating the ability and skills of listening such as: predicting text based on information, deducing meaning of unfamiliar words, recognizing prominence with in utterance including: Discriminating sounds in words especially phonemic contrasts, phonetic changes, deducing the meaning of unfamiliar words, recognizing grammatical errors in sentences, recognizing word boundaries, etc,. Conclusion Here, the emphasis is on the importance of addressing the differences between spoken and written texts in the teaching of listening skills. It is only when learners are aware of the unique characteristics of authentic listening input that they can be equipped with the skills to handle real life communication. 2.4.2 Speaking Skills Language is the basic form of communication between human beings and in a society. As human beings, they always need communication to express their ideas to do everything; whats more as students or learners they have to speak to express their ideas to their teacher as long as learning process takes place. Speech is the first and foremost form of communication. It occupies a predominant position in enlightening the minds of the people. Information is understood and processed easily through speech rather than writing. Speech is biologically endowed behaviour of human beings. Spoken language has wider range of functions to perform than the written language. They start from casual spontaneous conversations ending with formal speeches and so on. Written language tends to serve rather specialized functions at the formal level. In the process of learning spoken mode of second language, learner encounters difficulties because of inter and intra-lingual factors, language shock, cultural shock and so on. However, difficulties and problems are inevitable in the process of learning spoken or written mode of the L2. Process of Communication Communication is a process of exchanging verbal and non-verbal messages. It is continuous process. This process can be termed as human communication or oral communication. The activities of the communication maintain eco-balance, co-operation, and tolerance and bring the people in a common line. The complete communication process is the hierarchical arrangement of the various components of communication. They are as follows: Intended message Encoder Signals Decoder The received message Feedback Message is the key idea that the sender wants to communicate. Messages can be abstract ideas and feelings of speaker who wishes to communicate. Encoder is a person who sends the message in the form of words and gestures. Signal is a means used to exchange or transmit the message in the form of the mechanical impulse. Channel is the medium through which a signal travels. Decoder is a person for whom the message is intended/aimed. Decoder receives communication signals into meaning and ideas. Received message is the result of decoding communication signals. Feedback helps the sender in confirming the correct interpretation of message by the decoder. Psychologically speaking after receiving the message, the nervous system of the receiver is activated and subsequently interpreted and appropriate meanings are assigned to the received codes to make the communication process complete. Communicative Competence The term communicative competence is coined by the anthropological linguist Dell Hymes (1967, 1972). Light (1997. 63 ) has described communicative competence as Being able to meet the changing demands and to fulfill ones communication goals across the life span. Communicative competence is the ability to send messages which promote attainment of goals while maintaining social acceptability. The term all modes of communication'(Hymes, 1962) can further be explained as the language competence that has total comprehension, and total verbal exposition in all modes of society, which includes group interactions inter-personal interaction involving different dialectal areas. As it is evident from the above, one thinks of two different types of competence, namely grammatical competence and communicative competence. Grammatical competence is the ability to recognize and to produce distinctive grammatical structures of a language and to use them effectively in communication. Whereas, the communicative competence can be achieved by exposing oneself both to the structure of the language as well as the social behaviour which pivots around certain conventional rules as put forth by the society. Teaching/Learning Speaking Effective communication depends on ones ability to express oneself in speech clearly, accurately and fluently. The development of spoken language involves the development of pragmatic usage in addition to the development of pronunciation, constructing words, phrases, sentences and discourses. Discourse in learning of second language plays a vital role. The stages of learning the speaking skills of L2 are same as learning of speaking L1. The problems encountered by the learners in the process of learning subtle, and detailed knowledge, show the gradual development of spoken language. The purpose of learning the second language fulfills when the learners use language with the real people for real purpose. Communication Strategy Zheng (2004) suggests that communication strategies are feasible and to some extent inevitable for language learners to use in their oral communication. These strategies can enhance language learners confidence, flexibility and effectiveness in oral communication. Tarone (1980. 420; 1983.65) defines communication strategies as a mutual attempt of two interlocutors to agree on a meaning in situations where requisite meaning structures do not seem to be shared. In addition, Canale (1983) and Bygate (2000) argue that communication strategies are used not only to cope with any language related problems of which the speaker is aware during the course of communication, but also to enhance the effectiveness of communication even if there is no problem or difficulty involved in an oral communication. Thus, it can be said that communication strategies are commonly used not only to bridge the gaps between the linguistic and sociolinguistic knowledge of the second language learners and those of the interlocutors in any communication situation but also to keep their talk flowing within their available linguistic knowledge, and eventually manage their oral communication. And also the learners adopt the strategies wherever they encounter problems at all the levels of language like phonological, morphological, syntactical and discourse. Cook (2001) says communication strategy of L2 learners will enhance the learning; and the learners strategy indicates that the learners are encountering the linguistic problems in the process of learning. The learners knowingly or unknowingly use the intra and inter lingual strategies to convey their message to others. By using the strategy they get satisfaction, assuring that they have conveyed the meaning completely to the questions by the researcher. Learning Strategy Learning strategies are defined by Oxford and Crookall as Steps taken by the learners to aid the acquisition, storage and retrieval of information (404). Strategic competence is the way learners manipulate language in order to meet communicative goals (Brown, 1994, 228). It is the ability to compensate for imperfect knowledge of linguistic, sociolinguistic, and discourse rules (Berns, 1990). With reference to speaking, strategic competence refers to the ability to know when and how to take the floor, how to keep a conversation going, how to terminate the conversation, and how to clear up communication breakdown as well as comprehension problems. The strategy of learning differs from learner to learner. However Oà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ²malley and Chamot (1990) have defined three types of strategy used by L2 students: Meta cognitive strategies which involve planning and thinking about learning, such as planning ones learning, monitoring ones own speech or writing and evaluating how well one has done. Cognitive strategies which involve conscious ways of tackling learning, such as note taking, resourcing (using dictionaries and other resources) and elaboration (relating new information to old). Social strategies mean learning by interacting with others. Such as working with fellow students or asking the teachers help. Strategy process Language processing involves the retrieval of words and phrases from memory and their assembly into syntactically and propositionally appropriate sequences. Effective speakers need to be able to process language in their heads and put in coherent order so that it comes out in forms that are comprehensible and convey intended meaning. Process being used with reference to the systematic series of steps by which the learner arrives at the same usage overtime. Bialy Stock (1978) distinguishes process from strategies by the criteria obligatory/optional. Similar criteria are used by Fravefelder and Porqurer (1979) who classify process as universal, strategies as optional mechanism employed by individual L2 learners. Other researchers also defined process as continuing development involving a number of changes. Testing Speaking In second language research, a great deal of attention has been paid to related area of communicative behaviour. So, this part of the chapter concentrates on communication strategies of the L2 learners. Here, it is a tactic followed by the learners to conceal a gap in their communication. Hence, it is a test given to identify when and how the learners make use of such strategies in speech.